setObjects([{"0":"1","id":"1","1":"bakery","name":"bakery","2":"bæcern is the earlier form; later form is bæc-hus, which is found under the entry for bæcern in the database","oe":"bæcern is the earlier form; later form is bæc-hus, which is found under the entry for bæcern in the database","3":"A small wooden building containing one or more ovens and used for communal baking","definition":"A small wooden building containing one or more ovens and used for communal baking","4":"Bake houses survive in the remains of ovens and associated timbers and were especially to be found in monasteries.","description":"Bake houses survive in the remains of ovens and associated timbers and were especially to be found in monasteries.","5":"Only drawings locating bake houses in sites such as North Elmham (pictured here) survive.","image":"Only drawings locating bake houses in sites such as North Elmham (pictured here) survive.","6":"The modern word \"bakery\" comes from OE bæcere, one who bakes.","note":"The modern word \"bakery\" comes from OE bæcere, one who bakes.","7":"bæcern occurs 10 times, bæc-hus twice (in a thirteenth-century version of the Rule of St. Benedict)","freq":"bæcern occurs 10 times, bæc-hus twice (in a thirteenth-century version of the Rule of St. Benedict)","8":"All textual references are to documents with monastic provenance, especially The Rule of St. Benedict, and most refer to possible misconduct rather than to specific activities within the bake-house.","text_note":"All textual references are to documents with monastic provenance, especially The Rule of St. Benedict, and most refer to possible misconduct rather than to specific activities within the bake-house."},{"0":"2","id":"2","1":"churn","name":"churn","2":"cyrn, noun (fem.)","oe":"cyrn, noun (fem.)","3":"butter churn","definition":"butter churn","4":"A wooden vessel with stave sides, a lid, and a dasher, a pole fixed to either a rectangular block or circular disk that agitated the cream as it was plunged into and out of the churn. No whole churns survive, but dashers of both types and lids have been found.","description":"A wooden vessel with stave sides, a lid, and a dasher, a pole fixed to either a rectangular block or circular disk that agitated the cream as it was plunged into and out of the churn. No whole churns survive, but dashers of both types and lids have been found.","5":"Churn with lid and dasher with perforated disk (reconstructed), Anglo-Scandinavian type","image":"Churn with lid and dasher with perforated disk (reconstructed), Anglo-Scandinavian type","6":"Morris 2000, p. 2278 (reconstructed churn)","note":"Morris 2000, p. 2278 (reconstructed churn)","7":"There are just 3 occurrences of \"cyrn\" in Old English.","freq":"There are just 3 occurrences of \"cyrn\" in Old English.","8":"The textual references are not rich in contexts: a list and two glosses. The answer to Old English riddle no. 54 (Exeter Book) is usually given as \"churn\" in a pseudo-sexual description of a hard object (the dasher) thrust into a chamber with the result that after much shaking something begins to grow there.","text_note":"The textual references are not rich in contexts: a list and two glosses. The answer to Old English riddle no. 54 (Exeter Book) is usually given as \"churn\" in a pseudo-sexual description of a hard object (the dasher) thrust into a chamber with the result that after much shaking something begins to grow there."},{"0":"3","id":"3","1":"cooking pot","name":"cooking pot","2":"crocca, noun (masc.); also found as crocca, chroca.","oe":"crocca, noun (masc.); also found as crocca, chroca.","3":"Cooking pot. The same Old English word (crocca) also designates a crock used for mixing, preparing, or storing food or remedies (cf. Modern English crock). Pottery in the database have been identified as cookware if it shows burn marks or signs of use in cooking. See also cytel (usually of metal).","definition":"Cooking pot. The same Old English word (crocca) also designates a crock used for mixing, preparing, or storing food or remedies (cf. Modern English crock). Pottery in the database have been identified as cookware if it shows burn marks or signs of use in cooking. See also cytel (usually of metal).","4":"Cooking pots survive in fragments (sherds); in rare cases enough pieces remain so that a vessel can be reassembled in near-complete form (see the example at the left). Cooking pots usually have wide mouths and outward-turned (or everted) rims.","description":"Cooking pots survive in fragments (sherds); in rare cases enough pieces remain so that a vessel can be reassembled in near-complete form (see the example at the left). Cooking pots usually have wide mouths and outward-turned (or everted) rims.","5":"Pictured is a Torksey-type cooking pot, 125 mm. high from Coppergate, York.","image":"Pictured is a Torksey-type cooking pot, 125 mm. high from Coppergate, York.","6":"Source of image: Mainman 1990, plate XXVII","note":"Source of image: Mainman 1990, plate XXVII","7":"About 35 occurrences of \"crocca\" in Old English (not differentiating from cooking pot)","freq":"About 35 occurrences of \"crocca\" in Old English (not differentiating from cooking pot)","8":"References from medical texts are the most specific to the use of cooking pots; other texts tend to be descriptive and not to associate the object with a food-related process.","text_note":"References from medical texts are the most specific to the use of cooking pots; other texts tend to be descriptive and not to associate the object with a food-related process."},{"0":"4","id":"4","1":"crock","name":"crock","2":"crocca, noun (masc.); also found as crocca, chroca.","oe":"crocca, noun (masc.); also found as crocca, chroca.","3":"Crock. A pottery vessel used for storing or preparing food or remedies; see Modern English crock. Same OE word designated cooking pot, for which examples are specifically identified as cookware (objects show burn marks, etc.).","definition":"Crock. A pottery vessel used for storing or preparing food or remedies; see Modern English crock. Same OE word designated cooking pot, for which examples are specifically identified as cookware (objects show burn marks, etc.).","4":"Crocks were sometimes stored in the ground. They survive in fragments (sherds).","description":"Crocks were sometimes stored in the ground. They survive in fragments (sherds).","5":"Pictured is a Romano-British wheel-made crock from Shakenoak, \"large storage jar of greyish-brown fabric with slashed lines on the neck\" (p. 56).","image":"Pictured is a Romano-British wheel-made crock from Shakenoak, \"large storage jar of greyish-brown fabric with slashed lines on the neck\" (p. 56).","6":"Source: Brodribb, pp. 55-56. Found in 36 fragments, the crock was in use in the sixth and seventh centuries (much of it survived because it was apparently stored in the ground).","note":"Source: Brodribb, pp. 55-56. Found in 36 fragments, the crock was in use in the sixth and seventh centuries (much of it survived because it was apparently stored in the ground).","7":"About 35 occurences of this OE word crocca, not differentating crock from cooking pot.","freq":"About 35 occurences of this OE word crocca, not differentating crock from cooking pot.","8":"Crocks often stand for a common class of pottery in analogies in Old English text. References to crocks as storage vessels are rare.","text_note":"Crocks often stand for a common class of pottery in analogies in Old English text. References to crocks as storage vessels are rare."},{"0":"5","id":"5","1":"fish hook","name":"fish hook","2":"angel (noun, m.), also spelled angul, ancgel, ongel, and others.","oe":"angel (noun, m.), also spelled angul, ancgel, ongel, and others.","3":"fish hook","definition":"fish hook","4":"Fish hooks are not common but have been found in several mid-9th to 11th-century sites, including York. They are usually iron, sometimes barbed, and are variable in size. Hooks were used in line fishing, fresh water or marine.","description":"Fish hooks are not common but have been found in several mid-9th to 11th-century sites, including York. They are usually iron, sometimes barbed, and are variable in size. Hooks were used in line fishing, fresh water or marine.","5":"Dimensions of pictured hook: 20-22 mm across, 55-56 mm long, from York, 16-22 Coppergate","image":"Dimensions of pictured hook: 20-22 mm across, 55-56 mm long, from York, 16-22 Coppergate","6":"Source of image: Ottoway, AY vol. 17.6, p. 601, fig. 248","note":"Source of image: Ottoway, AY vol. 17.6, p. 601, fig. 248","7":"15 occ. in corpus","freq":"15 occ. in corpus","8":"The fish hook lends itself to analogies for danger in disguise, but some references are literal and concern line fishing with other techniques.","text_note":"The fish hook lends itself to analogies for danger in disguise, but some references are literal and concern line fishing with other techniques."},{"0":"6","id":"6","1":"fork","name":"fork","2":"awel, noun (masc.)","oe":"awel, noun (masc.)","3":"Fork. The same word is used in Old English for meat hook or flesh hook.","definition":"Fork. The same word is used in Old English for meat hook or flesh hook.","4":"Used for holding meat over a fire (fork) during cooking or from pulling meat from a cooking pot (hook); prongs curve out slightly and taper to points. One example from Sweden has a long wooden handle (Ottaway, p.; 599).","description":"Used for holding meat over a fire (fork) during cooking or from pulling meat from a cooking pot (hook); prongs curve out slightly and taper to points. One example from Sweden has a long wooden handle (Ottaway, p.; 599).","5":"Ottaway, p. 600, fig. 247 (socketed fork, 2989).","image":"Ottaway, p. 600, fig. 247 (socketed fork, 2989).","6":"Ottaway, pp. 599","note":"Ottaway, pp. 599","7":"19 occurrences in Old English (not differentiating from awel meaning flesh hook or meat hook)","freq":"19 occurrences in Old English (not differentiating from awel meaning flesh hook or meat hook)","8":"This implement is mentioned only in glosses.","text_note":"This implement is mentioned only in glosses."},{"0":"7","id":"7","1":"hearth","name":"hearth","2":"heorð, fyr","oe":"heorð, fyr","3":"hearth, fireplace, or, sometimes, simply fire","definition":"hearth, fireplace, or, sometimes, simply fire","4":"A common find, a hearth is described as a feature rather than as an object or small find. The condition of hearth bases is seldom noted; a hearth base usually indicates the floor level of a dwelling. The presence of a hearth is usually taken to indicate a residence or, if surrounding debris warrant, a smithy; no examples of the latter type are included in the database. Hearths survive as hearth bases of fired clay (clay-lined) or as unlined, bowl-shaped features. Some are described within structures of a size consistent with residences or halls; others appear in or near craft huts.","description":"A common find, a hearth is described as a feature rather than as an object or small find. The condition of hearth bases is seldom noted; a hearth base usually indicates the floor level of a dwelling. The presence of a hearth is usually taken to indicate a residence or, if surrounding debris warrant, a smithy; no examples of the latter type are included in the database. Hearths survive as hearth bases of fired clay (clay-lined) or as unlined, bowl-shaped features. Some are described within structures of a size consistent with residences or halls; others appear in or near craft huts.","5":"Hearth, 8th or 9th century, made of brick earth surrounded by re-used Roman tiles; adapted from Blackmore 1998, p. 62","image":"Hearth, 8th or 9th century, made of brick earth surrounded by re-used Roman tiles; adapted from Blackmore 1998, p. 62","6":"Image from London, Londonwic site (Royal Opera House, 1998)","note":"Image from London, Londonwic site (Royal Opera House, 1998)","7":"Prose 30x, poetry 12x, glosses 10x","freq":"Prose 30x, poetry 12x, glosses 10x","8":"The word is used figuratively to name the whole of which it is a part, i.e., a house. Compound forms include two words found in poetry only: \"heorðgeneatas,\" \"hearth-companions\" (only in Beowulf), and \"heorðwerod,\" \"hearth-troop,\" band of retainers. Some texts refer to hearths as sites for cooking (medical texts especially).","text_note":"The word is used figuratively to name the whole of which it is a part, i.e., a house. Compound forms include two words found in poetry only: \"heorðgeneatas,\" \"hearth-companions\" (only in Beowulf), and \"heorðwerod,\" \"hearth-troop,\" band of retainers. Some texts refer to hearths as sites for cooking (medical texts especially)."},{"0":"8","id":"8","1":"kettle","name":"kettle","2":"cytel, noun (masc.)","oe":"cytel, noun (masc.)","3":"a cooking vessel, usually of metal; a kettle","definition":"a cooking vessel, usually of metal; a kettle","4":"Metal kettles or cauldrons were larger than earthernware vessels and had symbolic significance for \"kingly provision of food\" (Hagen 1:56). These kettles could be made of copper, brass, bronze, or iron.","description":"Metal kettles or cauldrons were larger than earthernware vessels and had symbolic significance for \"kingly provision of food\" (Hagen 1:56). These kettles could be made of copper, brass, bronze, or iron.","5":"At left is a kettle found in a Viking grave, where it was part of a cremation. Three cauldrons or kettles have been found at Sutton Hoo, the most famous burial ground in Anglo-Saxon history, including in one of the ship burials and in the grave of a young man buried next to his horse.","image":"At left is a kettle found in a Viking grave, where it was part of a cremation. Three cauldrons or kettles have been found at Sutton Hoo, the most famous burial ground in Anglo-Saxon history, including in one of the ship burials and in the grave of a young man buried next to his horse.","6":"Compare cytel to two other OE words: fyr-cruces, cooking pot (found only in glossaries); and crocca, a pottery cooking vessel or a crock.","note":"Compare cytel to two other OE words: fyr-cruces, cooking pot (found only in glossaries); and crocca, a pottery cooking vessel or a crock.","7":"cytel: about 40 occurrences","freq":"cytel: about 40 occurrences","8":"Medical texts refer to the use of the kettle in cooking; the kettle was also a substantial piece of property and hence is mentioned as a possession.","text_note":"Medical texts refer to the use of the kettle in cooking; the kettle was also a substantial piece of property and hence is mentioned as a possession."},{"0":"9","id":"9","1":"knife","name":"knife","2":"seax, noun (masc.)","oe":"seax, noun (masc.)","3":"knife","definition":"knife","4":"A knife's practical function is related to its size and proportions. Exceptionally large knives with wide blades were those used for as weapons or in hunting and butchering (Ottaway, p. 583).","description":"A knife's practical function is related to its size and proportions. Exceptionally large knives with wide blades were those used for as weapons or in hunting and butchering (Ottaway, p. 583).","5":"The knife shown is a Viking instrument found in Staraia Ladoga, near St. Petersburg (Russia), from the 9th to 10th century. This is one of two knives found at this site that still have wooden handles. The knife shown on the illustration on the home page is an \"angle-back\" knife, meaning that there is a clear change of plane between the shoulder and the tip.","image":"The knife shown is a Viking instrument found in Staraia Ladoga, near St. Petersburg (Russia), from the 9th to 10th century. This is one of two knives found at this site that still have wooden handles. The knife shown on the illustration on the home page is an \"angle-back\" knife, meaning that there is a clear change of plane between the shoulder and the tip.","6":"Les Vikings, p. 299.","note":"Les Vikings, p. 299.","7":"Seax is an extremely common word in Old English and the number of times the word refers specifically to a knife used in cooking or butchering is not yet known.","freq":"Seax is an extremely common word in Old English and the number of times the word refers specifically to a knife used in cooking or butchering is not yet known.","8":"Texts show that knives were used for chopping vegetables and herbs; no textual references to butchering have been found.","text_note":"Texts show that knives were used for chopping vegetables and herbs; no textual references to butchering have been found."},{"0":"10","id":"10","1":"meat hook","name":"meat hook","2":"awel, noun (masc.)","oe":"awel, noun (masc.)","3":"a hook for pulling cooked meat out of a vessel or hanging meat","definition":"a hook for pulling cooked meat out of a vessel or hanging meat","4":"An implement with curved tips forming prongs and with a tang (projection to be fitted into a wooden handle, the handle not surviving); some have three rather than two prongs; similar to a fork","description":"An implement with curved tips forming prongs and with a tang (projection to be fitted into a wooden handle, the handle not surviving); some have three rather than two prongs; similar to a fork","5":"From York, 46-54 Fishergate","image":"From York, 46-54 Fishergate","6":"Rogers, p. 1331, fig. 643","note":"Rogers, p. 1331, fig. 643","7":"19 occurrences in Old English","freq":"19 occurrences in Old English","8":"","text_note":""},{"0":"11","id":"11","1":"pan","name":"pan","2":"panne, also cocerpanne (a rare word, found only in glosses)","oe":"panne, also cocerpanne (a rare word, found only in glosses)","3":"pan, more specifically frying pan","definition":"pan, more specifically frying pan","4":"a shallow metal kettle with a handle; shallow pottery vessels with a wooden handles are also included, representing a type often called socketed skillets and characteristic of late Saxon finds (particularly East Anglian, according to Waterman [1959])","description":"a shallow metal kettle with a handle; shallow pottery vessels with a wooden handles are also included, representing a type often called socketed skillets and characteristic of late Saxon finds (particularly East Anglian, according to Waterman [1959])","5":"A pan from Norway, Viking era (8th-10th century), circular, slightly concave, with a handle attached by rivet to the center.","image":"A pan from Norway, Viking era (8th-10th century), circular, slightly concave, with a handle attached by rivet to the center.","6":"Found in a burial mound","note":"Found in a burial mound","7":"cocerpanne occurs 10 times in glosses and glossaries; panne occurs about 35 times, predominantly in recipes and glosses","freq":"cocerpanne occurs 10 times in glosses and glossaries; panne occurs about 35 times, predominantly in recipes and glosses","8":"Medicinal recipies are the most explicit in connecting the pan to cookery, but all textual references associate the object with its culinary function or features (e.g., that it has handle).","text_note":"Medicinal recipies are the most explicit in connecting the pan to cookery, but all textual references associate the object with its culinary function or features (e.g., that it has handle)."},{"0":"12","id":"12","1":"quern","name":"quern","2":"Cweorn, noun (fem.); also found as cwyrn, cwern","oe":"Cweorn, noun (fem.); also found as cwyrn, cwern","3":"Mill, handmill, quern. See also cweorn-bill, cweorn-burna, cweorn-stan, cweorn-toþ, eosol-cweorn","definition":"Mill, handmill, quern. See also cweorn-bill, cweorn-burna, cweorn-stan, cweorn-toþ, eosol-cweorn","4":"Quernstones were used to grind corn or to crush clay for making pots. They are of two types. A rotary quern (pictured) consisted of two round stones on an axel, with a hole in the upper stone through which grain was poured to be ground as the top stone rotated over the bottom stone; a second hole in the top held a handle of some kind. A saddle quern also consisted of two stones, with the upper or hand-stone pushed and pulled over the saddle-shaped bottom stone.","description":"Quernstones were used to grind corn or to crush clay for making pots. They are of two types. A rotary quern (pictured) consisted of two round stones on an axel, with a hole in the upper stone through which grain was poured to be ground as the top stone rotated over the bottom stone; a second hole in the top held a handle of some kind. A saddle quern also consisted of two stones, with the upper or hand-stone pushed and pulled over the saddle-shaped bottom stone.","5":"The upper and lower stones of a rotary quern found near York, probably discarded in the twelfth century, when used of water-powered mills became mandatory.","image":"The upper and lower stones of a rotary quern found near York, probably discarded in the twelfth century, when used of water-powered mills became mandatory.","6":"York (Jorvik); Rogers, p. 1328, fig. 641 (http:\/\/www.iadb.co.uk\/artefacts\/quern1.htm).","note":"York (Jorvik); Rogers, p. 1328, fig. 641 (http:\/\/www.iadb.co.uk\/artefacts\/quern1.htm).","7":"\"Cweorn\" and its related forms occur 25 times in Old English texts.","freq":"\"Cweorn\" and its related forms occur 25 times in Old English texts.","8":"Querns are sometimes mentioned in connection with grain, but are often cited in figurative contexts as images of eternity (revolving). The millstone of Matthew 9:42 is often cited.","text_note":"Querns are sometimes mentioned in connection with grain, but are often cited in figurative contexts as images of eternity (revolving). The millstone of Matthew 9:42 is often cited."},{"0":"13","id":"13","1":"spatula","name":"spatula","2":"cucler, noun (masc); also cucler, cucelere, cuculere, cucere (same Old English word designates spoon)","oe":"cucler, noun (masc); also cucler, cucelere, cuculere, cucere (same Old English word designates spoon)","3":"spatula, an implement for mixing or stirring foods and medicines","definition":"spatula, an implement for mixing or stirring foods and medicines","4":"Pre-Norman spatulae can have a flat blade at one end tapering to a handle (as in the example from York pictured), or can have bowl at one end. Cast-iron spatulas from York have high-quality finishes (e.g., grooved stems) that suggest specialized use. Some spatulas have bowls, which are not deep, suggesting that the untnisel was not used for consuming liquids but for mixing spices or ointments. Most textual references are to recipes and medical texts.","description":"Pre-Norman spatulae can have a flat blade at one end tapering to a handle (as in the example from York pictured), or can have bowl at one end. Cast-iron spatulas from York have high-quality finishes (e.g., grooved stems) that suggest specialized use. Some spatulas have bowls, which are not deep, suggesting that the untnisel was not used for consuming liquids but for mixing spices or ointments. Most textual references are to recipes and medical texts.","5":"A tin-plated, double-bowled iron spoon from Anglian York","image":"A tin-plated, double-bowled iron spoon from Anglian York","6":"Morris 2000, p. 2270, no. 8905","note":"Morris 2000, p. 2270, no. 8905","7":"27 occ., mainly in medical recipes. Only one reference clearly designates an implement for stirring rather than for sipping, tasting, or otherwise ingesting.","freq":"27 occ., mainly in medical recipes. Only one reference clearly designates an implement for stirring rather than for sipping, tasting, or otherwise ingesting.","8":"References to implements used to stir and mix are extremely rare--so far, for this object, only one.","text_note":"References to implements used to stir and mix are extremely rare--so far, for this object, only one."},{"0":"14","id":"14","1":"spoon","name":"spoon","2":"cucler, noun (masc); (same word designates a spatula); the OE word sticca is also used to designate spoon and like cucler is found mainly in medical texts.","oe":"cucler, noun (masc); (same word designates a spatula); the OE word sticca is also used to designate spoon and like cucler is found mainly in medical texts.","3":"spoon for consuming liquids","definition":"spoon for consuming liquids","4":"The spoon was, after the knife, the most common eating utinsel in the Old English period. Spoons are usually carved from wood, so the length of the handle and the shape and depth of the bowl vary widely in surviving examples. Spoons are also made of iron, bone, and, in the later period, from pewter and bronze. Spoons included in the database are both wooden and metal. All textual examples refer to spoons used for consuming remedies, not for mixing them. Some references to sticca, however (these will eventually be listsed, in a separate entry), explicitly pertain to mixing rather than eating.","description":"The spoon was, after the knife, the most common eating utinsel in the Old English period. Spoons are usually carved from wood, so the length of the handle and the shape and depth of the bowl vary widely in surviving examples. Spoons are also made of iron, bone, and, in the later period, from pewter and bronze. Spoons included in the database are both wooden and metal. All textual examples refer to spoons used for consuming remedies, not for mixing them. Some references to sticca, however (these will eventually be listsed, in a separate entry), explicitly pertain to mixing rather than eating.","5":"Oval spoon with straight sides, plain handle, and possibly home-made (Morris, p. 2268), possibly 9th century and Anglo-Scandinavian; York, 16-22 Coppergate","image":"Oval spoon with straight sides, plain handle, and possibly home-made (Morris, p. 2268), possibly 9th century and Anglo-Scandinavian; York, 16-22 Coppergate","6":"Morris, AY 13, p. 2267 (fig. 1101, no. 8895)","note":"Morris, AY 13, p. 2267 (fig. 1101, no. 8895)","7":"27 occ.","freq":"27 occ.","8":"The word is found mainly in medical recipes as an implement for sipping, tasting, or otherwise ingesting, as in \"spoonful,\" \"full spoon,\" or \"half spoon.\"","text_note":"The word is found mainly in medical recipes as an implement for sipping, tasting, or otherwise ingesting, as in \"spoonful,\" \"full spoon,\" or \"half spoon.\""},{"0":"15","id":"15","1":"trough","name":"trough","2":"troga, noun (masc.), trough, hollow vessel, tray (also troh)","oe":"troga, noun (masc.), trough, hollow vessel, tray (also troh)","3":"rectangular container used for making bread but also associated with tasks linked to grain (e.g., sieving seeds)","definition":"rectangular container used for making bread but also associated with tasks linked to grain (e.g., sieving seeds)","4":"The example pictured has thick end walls, thinner side walls, and a U-shaped interior (in cross-section). The interiors of some surviving examples are stained with grease accumulated through culinary use.","description":"The example pictured has thick end walls, thinner side walls, and a U-shaped interior (in cross-section). The interiors of some surviving examples are stained with grease accumulated through culinary use.","5":"Post-medieval trough from the private collection of Carole A. Morris (AY 17.3), p. 2275, fig. 1106","image":"Post-medieval trough from the private collection of Carole A. Morris (AY 17.3), p. 2275, fig. 1106","6":"Morris, pp. 2274-75.","note":"Morris, pp. 2274-75.","7":"c. 18 occurrences in Old English","freq":"c. 18 occurrences in Old English","8":"Medicinal recipes show how troughs were used to prepare herbal baths; no references yet found associate the trough with breadmaking, a use suggested by surviving examples.","text_note":"Medicinal recipes show how troughs were used to prepare herbal baths; no references yet found associate the trough with breadmaking, a use suggested by surviving examples."}]);